Title: Cultivating Plurilingual Selves: Transformative Learning Across Languages and Cultures – Implications for Applied Linguistics and Adult Education
Author: Natalia Bussard, PhD, EdD
ABSTRACT:
Throughout my life, I have cultivated a deep interest in multilingualism and its profoundinfluence on the identities and lived experiences of plurilingual individuals. My interdisciplinary research, grounded in theory of plurilingualism, transformative learning (TL), and sociocultural theories of language and culture, have deepened my understanding of three interconnected dimensions: the development of a plurilingual self, the dynamics of relationships of plurilingual individuals with others, and expansion oftheir worldviews. The research participants may have acquired their multiple languages through schooling, immersion or through immigration to other nations. In my qualitativenarrative inquiry study, I examined transformative experiences of nine plurilingual individuals from diverse backgrounds. The transformations I observed were linked toincreased resilience, creativity, confidence, cultural awareness, openness, and lifelong learning and spanned across plurilingual individuals’ lifetime. Collaborating with participants, I co-created data through demographic questionnaires, language portraits, focus groups/interviews, and memoirs, then analyzed them using narrative inquiry and reflexive thematic analysis. Novel findings of this research study underscore the broad interdisciplinary relevance of plurilingualism across psychology, sociology, and educational policy, and affirm its significance beyond language acquisition alone.
Keywords: Plurilingualism, Transformative learning, Identity, Relationships, Worldviews
Theoretical Background
My research study is grounded within the social constructionism paradigm (Schwarz&Williams, 2020) according to which what we know and how we came to know it is socially constructed. I based my research of plurilingual individuals’ TL experiences on Mezirow’s (1978) Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) and theory of plurilingualism (CoE, 1996, 2001). TL occurs as a result of a shift in one’s beliefs, relationships, behaviors, and identity.This shift is a result of facing a difficult situation in one’s life which canalso happen due to exposure to new cultures or languages.TL framework integrates foundational TLT with contemporary insights into the role of emotions as catalysts for transformation, as articulated in the works of Mälkki and Green (2018) and Mälkki and Raami (2022).
Initially, Mezirow focused on the cognitive, rational dimension; later, scholars Dirkx (2006), Taylor (2009), and Illeris (2014), recommended increasing attention to the emotional dimension. Ross (2020) focused on transformation as a peak and transformation as trauma and reconfirmed the importance of emotions as catalysts of TL. While Mezirow (1978), a foundational figure in adult education, posited that perspective transformation alters an individual’s system of values and results in different behavior changes distinct to adulthood, Kegan et al., (1982), through constructive-developmentalpsychology lens, viewed transformation as an epistemological shift towards more complex meaning-making which enables critical reflection and autonomous thinking, spanning across an individual’s life. Illeris’s (2014) study of identity confirmed that a person starts to be capable of engaging in a critical reflection since youth.
In further development of TLT, Mezirow (1995) recognized an important role of the relationships in TL. Taylor (2000) expanded this perspective by emphasizing that through interpersonal connections, learners enhance their openness and develop the confidence to use their emotions effectively, and thereby accelerating transformative processes.
Plurilingualism (Council of Europe, 1996, 2001) rather than multilingualismaccentuates the idea of “a person, viewed as a social agent, [who] has proficiency of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures” (Council of Europe, 2001, p.168). Piccardo (2017) argued that the much wider used term multilingualism, does not fully encompass the complexity of increasing linguistic and cultural diversity, and therefore the construct of plurilingualism better expresses the intricacy of language acquisition and use (Council of Europe, 1996, 2001; Coste et al., 2009). Piccardo’s (2017) definition highlights the aspect of inclusivity:
Plurilingualism differs from multilingualism (the simple addition of languages insocieties and/or individuals) in that it focuses on the relationships between the languages an individual speaks, the underlying linguistic mechanisms and cultural connotations, the personal linguistic and cultural trajectory as well as the persons’ attitude toward language diversity, stressing openness, curiosity, and flexibility(p.2).
In this definition, Piccardo (2017) distinguishes plurilingualism from multilingualism, underscoring the relational aspect of plurilingualism among languages in the repertoire of an individual, their languages and cultures as well as their openness, curiosity, and flexibility.
My research also draws on the concept of Norton Peirce’s (1995) language as investment which captures “the relationship of the language learner to the changing social world [and] conceives of the language learner as having a complex social history and multiple desires” (pp.17-18). Language investment connects plurilingual individuals’motivation for language acquisition with their agency. Plurilingual individuals’ agency propels them to acquire additional languages and, influenced by this process, enables them to act in the world in transformative ways. The transformative processes can beexamined through plurilingual individuals’ journeys and identities, drawing on the classifications of transformations proposed by Illeris (2014) and Ross (2020). Illeris (2014) identified three types of transformations: progressive (a positive effect that moves towards transformation), regressive (a negative or slowing down effect that moves away from transformation), and restoring (reformulating goals to make them more realistic, and achievable in life). Ross (2020) introduced two additional types of transformations: peak (extremely positive, uplifting) and traumatic (extremely negative, leaving the individual feeling down).
While transformative journeys of language learners/users have been captured in the literature to some extent (Pavlenko, 2006; Obojska, 2019, Galante, 2024), these studies focused on identities depicted either in study abroad trips or service-learning environments, and did not fully encompass the complexities taking place in minds of adult plurilingual individuals reflecting in the changes of their interpersonal relationships.Having observed this gap in the literature, I positioned transformation as the central theoretical framework of my research, recognizing disorienting dilemma and critical reflection as catalysts for transformation, enabling the learners reassess their seeing, knowing, feeling, and acting in the world (Bussard, 2024, 2025).
Methodology
My study is epistemologically based on social constructionism, a framework which posits that knowledge is historically and culturally situated. Within this paradigm, language actively constitutes reality, serves as a precondition for thought, and functions as a form of social action (Braun & Clarke, 2022). The center of my attention are the social practices in which nine plurilingual participants engaged with me, co-constructing the dataset. To advance plurilingual scholarship, I adopted a researching multilinguallyframework (Holmes et al., 2013), granting participants the agency in selecting their preferred language of self-expression across three modalities: focus groups/interviews, language portraits, and memoirs. Additional co-created data were collected through demographic questionnaires, administered in English. The first stage of data co-creation allowed me to gather participants’ perspectives on their countries of origin and thecultures they had been immersed in. Following this, participants created their language portraits, illustrating the language repertoires they had acquired throughout their lives. Through the portraits the participants expressed the significance of each language they spoke. Before participating in focus groups/interviews, participants engaged with two language learning memoirs written by the researcher. This activity’s aim was to familiarize the participants with the concept of a disorienting dilemma—a moment or aperiod of time— leading to personal transformation—and to prompt them to consider their own transformative experiences. The participants were informed that after the focus groups, they would write their own language learning memoirs. Initially, I planned to conduct three focus groups with three participants each to facilitate the exchange of ideas. However, due to unforeseen circumstances, some participants were unable to attend the originally scheduled sessions. To avoid further delays, I opted to conduct with them individual interviews. During the 90-minute focus groups or 60-minute interviews, I co-generated rich descriptions, exploring the participants’ identity dilemmas, transformations, and catalysts for their life journeys. Both the focus groups/interviews and the memoirs co-generated of rich data, which allowed me to identify subthemes and overarching themes that contributed to novel findings. In my qualitative research, I used Clandinin & Connelly’s (2000) narrative inquiry methodology and reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2022), further opting for Fraser’s (2004) approach due to its emphasis on rich contextual descriptions. This combination of approaches provided analytical flexibility while explicitly incorporating my interpretive role as a researcher.
Transformations of identities, interpersonal relationships, and worldviews
In this section, I introduce the types of transformations my participants underwent in their language learning journeys, focusing on changes that shaped their identities. I then provide a brief overview of how these shifts in identity influenced their interpersonal relationships and their worldviews. In the discussion, I summarize these findings, propose plurilingual educational policies, and situate them within the existing body of literature.
Drawing on Illeris’s (2014) and Ross’ s (2020) classifications of transformations, I identified that most plurilingual individuals’ transformations aligned with restoring transformations (Illeris, 2014). In these transformations, participants experienceddisorienting dilemmas, reformulated their goals to become more realistic and achievable in life. The following six examples illustrate restoring transformations, the first two of which simultaneously represent traumatic transformations (Ross, 2020).
During her adolescence, Fabyan was silenced by a Slovak man for using Hungarian to communicate. This suppression ignited her resilience and a desire to act contrary to societal norms. Fabyan’s transformative experience affirmed her agency and acceptance for others. Marie Rose, like Fabyan, faced ridicule from Slovak peers for using Hungarian in Slovakia which catalyzed a shift. This negative experience, nevertheless, fostered acquiring additional languages and empowering others to self-express through their preferred languages. Elena leveraged her plurilingual abilities and immersion in other cultures to reorient herself from hopelessness of a challenging family environment. This shift allowed her to rebuild her belief system and cultivate a purposeful life. Both Marie Rose’s and Elena’s transformations qualify as traumatic transformations in Ross’s (2020) classification framework.
Lucia’s disillusionment with her ability to find employment in Mexico without speaking Spanish led to her to acquire the language and establish closer professional and personal relationships with Mexican communities which is an example of a restoring transformation. Tim’s inappropriate use of words, intended to praise the host for a delicious meal during Sweden’s Midsummer festivities, left the host feel unappreciated and led Tim to reconsider the importance of fully understanding each word he was using. This disorienting dilemma became the catalyst for his restoring transformation.
Manon realized that thinking in another language while living in Japan was transformative. This realization led Manon to acquire more languages, become appreciative of other cultures, more accepting, and less judgmental. Her transformation was both restoring and profound –– a kind that Ross (2020) classifies as peak– as it left Manon uplifted. Three out of nine participants’ transformations were peak transformations. Another peak transformation was Aida’s move to Austria, where using German daily helped her realize how her comprehension improved over time. Aida’sprogress validated her parents’ investment in teaching her languages, which later became an impetus for learning even more languages. This developmental stage is also termed progressive transformation (Illeris, 2014). Nemo’s transformed as his perception of language shifted from viewing it as a tool for expressing meaning to understanding it as a means of connecting with other cultures. This transformation represents both a peak and a progressive transformation. Baruch’s progressive transformation became evident in how learning of English became a catalyst for connecting and communicating effectively with others, and he became motivated to acquire additional languages. The restorative (some trauma), progressive (peak), and regressive transformations associated with identity shifts were reflected in qualities such as heightened resilience, hope, confidence (Pomeroy & Oliver, 2021), agency (Ahearn, 2001; Larsen-Freeman, 2019), and feelings of personal growth. In terms of interpersonal relationships, participants felt a stronger desire for connection, greater efforts to understand others, and improved communication effectiveness, all of which were linked to increased empathy (García-Vazquez et al., 2022), aspirations to empower, support, accept, and appreciate others. Participants reported embracing a lifelong learning mindset, a deepened desire to acquire new languages in terms of language investment (Norton Peirce, 1995), an appreciation for diverse cultures (Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013), interculturality (Byram, 1997, 2021; Senyshyn, 2018) and an increased openness and acceptance toward others (Byram et al., 2001; Bussard, 2024, 2025).
Discussion and Connection to Educational Policy
Plurilingual individuals’ multifaceted identities changed through navigating the psychologically complex transformative language learning journeys. Yet, transformation through plurilingualism is only one way in which an individual’s identity, relationships with others, and worldviews can be altered and such transformation is not a guaranteed and depends on each individuals’ unique factors (Bamber, 2016; Mezirow, 1978; Senyshyn, 2018). My research revealed that genuine connection with others depended on a level of self-understanding or self-awareness in relation to others and on individual factors that require further investigation in future research. My research participants highlighted that multiple language acquisition has strengthened their interconnectedness with the cultures in which they were immersed, and vice versa (Bamber, 2016; Senyshyn, 2018; Wernicke et al., 2021). Participants concluded that they had become intercultural speakers who “interact with ‘others’, to accept other perspectives and perceptions of the world, to mediate between different perspectives, to be conscious of their evaluations and differences” (Byram, 2001, p. 5).
My research study’s participants reported an increased sense of connection due toexposure to multiple languages and cultures, which was reflected in their increased level of empathy, openness and acceptance of others. Simultaneously, some participants essentialized other cultures, and made generalizations, indicating signs of classism and racism. Based on this, I observed that exposure to multiple languages and cultures does not guarantee a positive relationship between plurilingualism and cultural sensitivity, rather, this relationship is complex (see also Putnam, 2007).
The insights from this research have significant implications for a wide range of stakeholders, including parents, language learners and users, teachers, school administrators, policymakers, fellow researchers, and the general public. My research’s findings have practical relevance for the stakeholders mentioned above; can inform evidence-based decision-making, and contribute to the development of more inclusive and effective language policies in order to better support diverse linguistic communities.For example, language teachers might encourage all their students to use all the languages in their repertoire as bridges that support language learning. This practice has proven effective because a strong foundation in a child’s first language significantly enhances their ability to develop plurilingualism (Lo Bianco, 2017). This approach would transfer responsibility for children’s plurilingual development would from parents — who frequently lack the necessary skills and resources— to institutions better equipped to implement effective practices that foster academic and societal success (Anthony- Newman, 2025; Piller & Gerber, 2021). My own research aligns with these perspectives, revealing that participants expressed themselves differently depending on which language from their repertoire they used, thereby evoking distinct memories. Simultaneously, the language used influenced how participants prioritized different ideas. Allowing participants to choose their preferred language enabled them to discuss topics that wouldotherwise remain unexplored, enriching the research and enhancing its comprehensiveness.
The implementation of plurilingual language policies in schools could significantly benefit students by fostering the transformation and expansion of their worldviews. Furthermore, such policies may substantially enhance students’ cognitive and interpersonal skills, including creativity, analytical thinking, and the cultivation of a positive attitude toward lifelong learning. In addition, practicing of plurilingualism can enhance individuals’ relationships by fostering greater acceptance of diverse worldviews. This understanding may encourage policymakers to implement policies plurilingualism-friendly policies across all levels of education. For instance, schools could establish policies that incorporate all languages present within the educational environment– ranging from the dominant instructional language to the diverse home languages spoken by students. Such policies would aim to create an inclusive linguistic environment that actively values and supports every student’s background language background, thereby strengthening the school’s cultural and communicative cohesion.
References:
Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual review of anthropology, 30, 109-137. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.109
Antony-Newman, M. (2025). Plurilingualism for social justice: A meta-synthesis. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2025.2475915
Bamber, P. (2016). Transformative Education through International Service-Learning: Realising an ethical ecology of learning (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315684970
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide. Sage.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence.Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., Nichols, A. & Stevens, D. (2001). Developing Intercultural Competence in Practice. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853595356
Byram, M. (2021). Defining and Describing Intercultural Communicative Competence. In Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence: Revisited (pp. 12-39). MultilingualMatters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410251-005
Bussard, N. (2024). Influences of Transformative Multiple Language Learning and Use on Changing the Ways of Seeing and Being in the World, Proceedings of the XV Biennial International Transformative Learning Conference (pp.256-263). University of Siena, Italy.https://www.intertla.org/past-conferences-proceedings/
Bussard, N. (2025, March 9), More Languages, More Opportunities: Your Life, Amplified, UniNewsletter, volume 3, pp.8-11, https://issuu.com/uninewsletter/docs/un-march/9
Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass.
Council of Europe (CoE). (1996). Modern languages: Learning, teaching, assessment:
A Common European Framework of Reference. [Draft 2 of a Framework
Proposal; CC-LANG (95) 5 rev. IV]. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. rm.coe.int/
modern-languages-learning-teaching-assessment-a-common-european-framew/1680886e8c
Council of Europe (CoE). (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press. rm.coe.int/1680459f97
Coste, D., Moore, D., & Zarate, G. (2009). Plurilingual and pluricultural competence:
Studies towards a Common European Framework of Reference for language learning and teaching. Council of Europe, Language Policy Division. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://rm.coe.int/168069d29b
Dirkx, J. M. (2006). Engaging emotions in adult learning: A Jungian perspective on emotion and transformative learning. In E. Taylor (Ed.), Teaching for change. New directions in adult and Continuing education, 109, 15–26.
Fraser, H. (2004). Doing narrative research: Analyzing personal stories line by line. Qualitative Social Work, 3(2), 179–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325004043383
Galante, A. (2024). Plurilingual and pluricultural competence: Origins, current trends, and future directions. In C. Fäcke, X. Gao, & P. Garrett-Rucks (Eds.), The handbook of plurilingual and intercultural language learning.Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394165957.ch24
García-Vazquez, E., Turrero-García, M. & Rodriguez, N. Multilingualism enhances immigration acceptance through increased intergroup quality contact: A proof of concept in New Jersey and Spain, Lingua, 273(103320), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2022.103320.
Holmes, P., Fay, R., Andrews, J., & Attia, M. (2013). Researching multilingually: new theoretical and methodological directions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 23(3), 285–299.
Illeris, K. (2014). Transformative Learning and Identity. Journal of Transformative Education, 12(2), 148–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344614548423
Kegan, R., Noam, G. G., & Rogers, L. (1982). The psychology of emotion: A neo-Piagetian view. Child Development, 53(6), 1298-1307. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219821606
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). On language learner agency: A complex dynamic systems theory perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 103(1), 5-18. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12536
Liddicoat, A. J., & Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural language teaching and learning (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482070
Lo Bianco, J. (2017, February 9-10). Multilingualism in education: Equity and social cohesion: Consideration for TESOL [Paper presentation]. Summit on the Future of the TESOL Profession, Athens, Greece.
Mälkki, K., & Green, L. (2018). Working with edge emotions as a means for uncovering problematic assumptions: Developing a practically sound theory. Phronesis, 7(3), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.7202/1054406ar
Mälkki, K., & Raami, A. (2022). Transformative learning to solve the impossible. In E. Kostara, A. Gavrielatos, & D. Loads (Eds.), Transformative learning theory and praxis (1st ed., pp. 76–91). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429450600-7
Mezirow, J. (1978). Perspective transformation. Adult Education, 28(2), 100–110.
Mezirow, J. (1995). Transformation theory of adult learning. In M. Welton (Ed.), In defense of the lifeworld: Critical perspectives on adult learning (pp. 37–90). State University of New York Press.
Mezirow, J. (2003). Transformative Learning as Discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1), 58-63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344603252172
Norton Peirce, B. N. (1995). Social Identity, Investment, and Language Learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 9–31. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587803
Obojska, M. A. (2019). Trilingual repertoires, multifaceted experiences: multilingualism among Poles in Norway. International Multilingual Research Journal, 13(4), 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2019.1611337
Piccardo, E. (2017). Plurilingualism as a catalyst for creativity in superdiverse societies: A systemic analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02169
Pomeroy, E., & Oliver, K. (2021). Action Confidence as an Indicator of Transformative Change. Journal of Transformative Education, 19(1), 68-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344620940815
Piller, I., & Gerber, L. (2021). Family language policy between the bilingual advantage and the monolingual mindset. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 24(5), 622–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1503227
Putnam, R.D. (2007). “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century.” Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137–174.
Ross, S. (2020). The Map to Wholeness: Real-Life Stories of Crisis, Change, and Reinvention-Your Guide through the 13 Phases of Transformation. North Atlantic Books.
Senyshyn, R. M. (2018). Teaching for transformation: converting the intercultural experience of preservice teachers into intercultural learning. Intercultural Education, 29(2), 163–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2018.1429791
Taylor, E. W. (1994). Intercultural Competency: A Transformative Learning Process. Adult Education Quarterly, 44(3), 154-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/074171369404400303
Taylor, E. (2000). Fostering Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory in the Adult Education Classroom: A Critical Review. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 14(2), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.56105/cjsae.v14i2.1929
Taylor, E. W. (2009). Fostering transformative learning. In J. Mezirow, E. Taylor, & Associates (Eds.), Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace and higher education. Jossey-Bass.
Wernicke, M., Hammer, S., Hansen, A., & Schroedler, T. (Eds.). (2021). Preparing Teachers to Work with Multilingual Learners. Multilingual Matters. https://www.multilingual-matters.com/page/detail/?K=9781788926096